Menya bimwe mu byaranze Bwana David Ben gulion

David Ben-Gurion (avugwa nka ben GOOR-ee-ən; mu Giheburayo: דָּוִד בֶּן־גּוּרִיּוֹן; yavutse yitwa David Grün, ku wa 16 Ukwakira 1886 – yapfuye ku wa 1 Ukuboza 1973) yari umwe mu bashinze igihugu ndetse akaba na Minisitiri w’Intebe wa mbere wa Israeli.

Nk’umuyobozi wa Jewish Agency kuva mu 1935, nyuma akaba Perezida w’Inama Nyobozi yayo, yabaye umuyobozi nyakuri (de facto leader) w’Abayahudi bari batuye muri Palesitina (Yishuv), kandi yagize uruhare rukomeye mu kuyobora urugamba rwo gushaka igihugu cyigenga cy’Abayahudi muri Mandatory Palestine.Yavukiye i Płońsk, icyo gihe yari mu gice cyitwaga Congress Poland, avuka ku babyeyi b’Abayahudi b’Abanyapolonye. Mu 1906 yimukiye mu karere ka Palestine kari mu Bwami bwa Ottoman. Mu 1909 yafashe izina rya Ben-Gurion, aza kuba umwe mu bayobozi bakomeye b’Abayahudi bari batuye muri Palesitina iyobowe n’Abongereza (Mandatory Palestine) kuva 1935 kugeza hashinzwe Israeli mu 1948. Yayoboye igihugu kugeza mu 1963, nubwo yagize akaruhuko gato mu 1954–1955.

Inyungu ze muri Zionism zatangiye akiri muto, bimuha kuba umwe mu bayobozi bakomeye b’uyu mutwe ndetse aba n’umuyobozi mukuru w’ishyirahamwe World Zionist Organization mu 1946.

Ku wa 14 Gicurasi 1948, yatangaje ku mugaragaro ishingwa rya Leta ya Isiraheli, kandi aba uwa mbere wasinye Israeli Declaration of Independence, inyandiko yagize uruhare mu gutegura. Mu buyobozi bwe, habaye 1948 Arab–Israeli War, aho ingabo zitandukanye z’Abayahudi zahujwe zikaba Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Isiraheli igatsinda Arab League, ndetse benshi mu Barabu b’Abanyapalestine bagahunga. 

Nyuma y’intambara, yabaye Minisitiri w’Intebe wa mbere wa Isiraheli ndetse na Minisitiri w’Ingabo. Mu buyobozi bwe, yubatse inzego za leta, ayobora imishinga igamije guteza imbere igihugu, anafasha kwakira no gutuza abimukira b’Abayahudi (Aliyah). Mu bya dipolomasi, yibanze cyane ku kunoza umubano na West Germany binyuze mu masezerano y’indishyi (Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany) ajyanye n’ibyangijwe n’Abanazi mu gihe cya Holocaust.

Mu 1954, yeguye ku mwanya wa Minisitiri w’Intebe n’uw’Ingabo, ariko akomeza kuba umudepite mu Knesset. Yagarutse ku mwanya wa Minisitiri w’Ingabo mu 1955 nyuma y’ikibazo cyitwa Lavon Affair n’iyegura rya Pinhas Lavon. Muri uwo mwaka yongeye kuba Minisitiri w’Intebe nyuma y’amatora yo mu 1955.

Yashyigikiye ibikorwa byo kwihorera ku bitero by’imitwe y’Abarabu ndetse n’igitero Isiraheli yagabye kuri Misiri ifatanyije n’u Bwongereza n’u Bufaransa mu gihe cya Suez Crisis. Mu 1963, yavuye ku butegetsi, asezera burundu muri politiki mu 1970.

Nyuma yimukiye mu nzu ye yoroheje yitwaga Ben-Gurion's Hut i Sde Boker, muri Negev, aho yabaye kugeza apfuye. Nyuma y’urupfu rwe, yashyizwe mu bantu 100 bakomeye kurusha abandi mu kinyejana cya 20. Yanditswe na Nzayisenga Adrien.

Sobanukirwa icyitwaga akazu

 Akazu (mu Kinyarwanda: inzu nto) ryari itsinda  rigizwe n’abanyacyubahiro bamwe b’abahezanguni b’Abahutu, bagize uruhare rukomeye muri Jenoside yakorewe Abatutsi. Ryari rigizwe n’abavandimwe n’inshuti za hafi z’uwari Perezida w’u Rwanda, Juvénal Habyarimana, n’umugore we wari ufite ijambo rikomeye, Agathe Habyarimana. Iri tsinda nanone ryitwaga “Zero Network”, bitewe n’intego yabo yo kugira u Rwanda rudafite n’umwe mu batutsi.

Amavu n’amavuko

Abagize Akazu ahanini bari abavandimwe ba Habyarimana cyangwa abantu yakuranye na bo mu majyaruguru y’u Rwanda. Bari bafite imyanya ikomeye mu butegetsi bw’Abahutu.

Ntibifuzaga gusangira ubutegetsi n’Abatutsi ( cyangwa n’Abahutu batashyigikiye ingengabitekerezo yabo.

Bagize uruhare mu guteza imbere ingengabitekerezo ya Hutu Power no gukwirakwiza urwango ku Batutsi mu myaka ya za 1990. Hari abashakashatsi bemeza ko iyo ngengabitekerezo n’ubwicanyi bakoze byari uburyo bwo kugumisha ku butegetsi imbaraga bari barabonye kuva Habyarimana yafata ubutegetsi abinyujije muri coup d’état.

Bamwe mu bagize Akazu bazwi

Protais Zigiranyirazo, wahoze ari perefe wa Ruhengeri

Séraphin Rwabukumba, muramu wa Perezida Habyarimana

Koloneli Elie Sagatwa (FAR)

Théoneste Bagosora, Koloneli wa FAR

Koloneli Laurent Serubuga

Félicien Kabuga, umucuruzi wateye inkunga RTLM n’ikinyamakuru Kangura

Agathe Kanziga, umugore wa Habyarimana

Séraphin Bararengana, wari uyoboye ishami ry’ubuvuzi muri Kaminuza y’u Rwanda

Charles Nzabagerageza, umucuruzi wari ufite imigabane muri RTLM

Alphonse Ntirivamunda, umukwe wa Habyarimana

Joseph Nzirorera, wahoze ayobora Inama y’Iterambere n’uwari Minisitiri w’Inganda, Amabuye y’agaciro n’Ubukorikori

Noel Mbonabaryi, se wabo wa Habyarimana

Pauline Nyiramasuhuko, wari Minisitiri w’umuryango n’iterambere ry’umugore kuva mu 1992. Yanditswe na Nzayisenga Adrien 

Menya akamaro k'ubwenge bw'ubukorano

 Gutuma AI (ubwenge bw’ubukorano) ifata ibyemezo mu mwanya w’abantu bishobora kongera ibibazo by’ivangura, ubusumbane mu bukungu, no kugabanya uburyozwe bw’inzego zifata ibyemezo. Gushyiraho amabwiriza yita ku myitwarire (ethical guidelines) ashyira imbere ubutabera, uburyozwe, no kutavangura bizafasha kugabanya izi ngaruka. Uko AI irushaho kwigenga, ni ko bizaba ngombwa gushyiraho uburyo bwo kugenzura no kubaza inshingano ibigo kugira ngo habeho gukorera mu mucyo.

Hatabayeho ingamba zihagije n’imiyoborere myiza, ikoreshwa rya AI rishobora guteza igihombo ku mahame y’ubutabera, gukorera mu mucyo, no kurengera inyungu rusange, bitewe n’uko ishobora gukwirakwiza no kongera ubusumbane n’ivangura bisanzwe biri mu muryango.

Ingaruka ku Bukungu

Mu gihe kizaza, AI izaba moteri ikomeye yongera umusaruro n’iterambere ry’ubukungu, binyuze mu kongera imikorere myiza no kunoza ifatwa ry’ibyemezo hashingiwe ku isesengura ry’amakuru (data). Ishobora gutuma havuka ibicuruzwa bishya, serivisi nshya, amasoko mashya ndetse n’inganda nshya, bigatanga n’andi mafaranga yinjira.

Ubushakashatsi bumwe bugaragaza ko AI ishobora kuzamura GDP y’isi ku kigero cya 14% bitarenze umwaka wa 2030.

Icya mbere, AI izongera cyane umusaruro w’abakozi kubera ikoranabuhanga rifasha kunoza imirimo. Icya kabiri, izatanga “abakozi b’ikoranabuhanga” bashobora kwikora imirimo yo gutekereza no gukemura ibibazo (virtual workforce). Icya gatatu, ubukungu buzungukira mu gukwirakwira kw’udushya (innovation) mu nzego zitandukanye, bigafungura andi mahirwe mashya yinjiza amafaranga.

Muri rusange, AI ifite ubushobozi bwo kongera iterambere ry’ubukungu ku rwego rw’isi mu myaka 10 iri imbere, binyuze mu kongera umusaruro, gufasha abantu mu kazi, no guhanga amahirwe mashya.

Politiki n’Amategeko Mpuzamahanga kuri AI

Nk’uko umuyobozi mukuru wa Google yabivuze, akamaro ka AI gasaba gushyirirwaho amategeko ayigenga, kuko iyo nta bufatanye buriho, ishobora kongera icyuho mu bukungu no muri politiki hagati y’ibihugu.

Aya mategeko azafasha gushyiraho ihuzwa n’ihame rusange (standardization) kugira ngo sisitemu za AI zibashe gukorana neza mu bucuruzi, ubushakashatsi, n’izindi nzego.

Biteganyijwe ko amategeko azibanda cyane ku nzego zifite ibyago byinshi nka:

imari n’imigabane,

ubuvuzi,

umurimo n’akazi,

umutekano w’abana.

Nubwo AI ifite inyungu nyinshi, ishobora no gukoreshwa nabi cyangwa igateza ingaruka zitunguranye, bikaba byahungabanya umutekano n’ituze ku rwego mpuzamahanga. Urugero, iterambere rya AI mu bijyanye n’ubumenyi bw’ibinyabuzima rishobora no gutuma habaho ibikoresho bishobora kwifashishwa mu ntambara.

Ku bw’izo mpamvu, abashyiraho politiki bagomba guhora bagenzura neza ingaruka za AI, bagashaka uko inyungu zayo zagerwaho hadateje ibibazo bikomeye. Ibi bisaba ubufatanye n’ubwitonzi bukomeza mu rwego mpuzamahanga.

Ihuriro ry’Abanyarwanda riharanira Ubumwe bw’Igihugu (RANU)

Ihuriro ry’Abanyarwanda riharanira Ubumwe bw’Igihugu (RANU) ryashinzwe mu Kuboza 1979 i Nairobi, muri Kenya, rishingwa n’urubyiruko rw’abanyabwenge b’Abanyarwanda b’Abatutsi bari impunzi, benshi muri bo barakururiye ubuzima bwabo muri Uganda. RANU yari igamije kuganira ku buryo bushoboka bwo kugaruka mu Rwanda.

Nubwo yatangiye ari ihuriro ryo kungurana ibitekerezo, yaje gufata indi ntera ikomeye ya gisirikare nyuma y’itorwa rya Milton Obote mu matora yo mu 1980, bituma impunzi nyinshi z’Abatutsi zifatanya na Yoweri Museveni mu ntambara izwi nka Ugandan Bush War.

Nyuma y’ihirikwa rya Idi Amin mu 1979, Obote yamaganye umutwe wa National Resistance Army (NRA) awushinja kuba ugizwe n’Abanyarwanda (Banyarwanda). Mu 1982, habayeho igerageza ryo gushyira impunzi zose mu nkambi, ariko rirapfuba, bituma impunzi zigera ku 40,000 zisubizwa ku ngufu mu Rwanda. Leta y’u Rwanda yemeye kwakira 4,000 gusa, naho Uganda yemera kwakira 1,000 gusa. Abagera ku 35,000 basigaye baguma mu buzima butazwi neza ku mupaka imyaka myinshi, benshi mu rubyiruko rw’impunzi bahitamo kwinjira muri NRA.

Ishyirwaho rya RPF

Nyuma y’uko Yoweri Museveni afashe ubutegetsi mu 1986, Fred Rwigyema, wari umusirikare w’impunzi, yagizwe Minisitiri wungirije w’ingabo za Uganda ndetse n’umuyobozi wungirije w’igisirikare, akurikirwa na Museveni gusa mu buyobozi bwa gisirikare. Paul Kagame we yagizwe umuyobozi w’agateganyo ushinzwe iperereza rya gisirikare.

Abasirikare benshi ba NRA bari Abanyarwanda kuko binjiye mu rugamba hakiri kare, bituma bagira ubunararibonye bwinshi. Umusanzu wabo wahise ugaragara maze Leta nshya ibashimira. Nyuma y’amezi atandatu gusa ifashe ubutegetsi, Museveni yahinduye amategeko yari asanzweho, atangaza ko Abanyarwanda bari bamaze imyaka 10 muri Uganda bazahabwa ubwenegihugu.

Mu Kuboza 1987, RANU yakoresheje kongere yayo ya karindwi i Kampala ihindura izina iba Umuryango FPR Inkotanyi (Rwandan Patriotic Front – RPF). Amahame yayo arimo: ubumwe, ubusugire n’umutekano, ubukungu, ubuyobozi bwa demokarasi, kurwanya ruswa, gukuraho impamvu zose zitera ubuhunzi, umubano mpuzamahanga, imibereho myiza y’abaturage, no kurwanya Jenoside n’ingengabitekerezo yayo. Yanditswe na Nzayisenga Adrien 

Sobanukirwa Intambara ya Mbere y’Isi (1914–1918)

Intambara ya Mbere y’Isi (1914–1918), izwi kandi nk' “Intambara Ikomeye (Great War)”, yari intambara yabaye ku rwego rw’isi yose ihuza impande ebyiri z’ibihugu byishyize hamwe:

Allies of World War I (Allies/Entente)

Central Powers

Aho iyi ntambara yabereye cyane harimo:

Europe

Middle East

Ibice bimwe bya Africa

ndetse na Asia-Pacific

Iyi ntambara yazanye impinduka zikomeye mu ikoranabuhanga rya gisirikare, harimo:

za tanks (imodoka z’intambara)

indege z’intambara

imbunda nini (artillery)

machine guns

n’intwaro z’ubumara (chemical weapons)

Ni imwe mu ntambara zahitanye abantu benshi cyane mu mateka y’isi, aho hapfuye abantu bagera hagati ya miliyoni 15 na 22, barimo abasirikare n’abasivili. Yanateye ibibazo bikomeye by’ubwicanyi bwibasira amoko runaka (genocide).

Nanone, kwimuka kw’abantu benshi kubera iyi ntambara byagize uruhare runini mu ikwirakwira ry’icyorezo cya Spanish flu, cyahitanye abantu benshi ku isi.Impamvu z’ingenzi zateye World War I zirimo izamuka rya German Empire n’igabanuka ry’imbaraga za Ottoman Empire, ibintu byahungabanyije uburinganire bw’imbaraga (balance of power) mu Burayi. Hari kandi guhatanira kwagura ubukoloni (imperial rivalry) no kwiyubaka kw’intwaro hagati y’ibihugu bikomeye (arms race).

Ubushyamirane bwari bwiyongereye cyane mu karere ka Balkans, bugera aho buturika ku wa 28 Kamena 1914, ubwo Gavrilo Princip yicaga Franz Ferdinand, wari uzasimbura umwami wa Austria-Hungary. Ibi byatumye Austria-Hungary ishinja Serbia maze itangaza intambara ku wa 28 Nyakanga 1914.

Nyuma yaho, Russian Empire yaje gutabara Serbia, bituma Germany itangaza intambara kuri Russia no kuri France yari iyishyigikiye. United Kingdom nayo yinjiye mu ntambara nyuma y’uko u Budage buteye Belgium, naho Ottoman Empire yifatanya n’uruhande rw’ibihugu byiswe Central Powers.

Mu 1914, u Budage bwari bufite umugambi wo gutsinda u Bufaransa vuba (Schlieffen Plan), ariko bwahagaritswe mu ntambara ya First Battle of the Marne. Ku ruhande rw’Uburengerazuba (Western Front), habayeho intambara z’imyobo (trench warfare) kuva ku Nyanja ya English Channel kugeza mu gihugu cya Switzerland. Ku ruhande rw’Iburasirazuba (Eastern Front), intambara yari ihindagurika cyane ariko nta ruhande rwabashije gutsinda burundu.

Ibihugu byinshi byinjiye muri iyi ntambara kuva mu 1915, birimo Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, na Greece.

Intambara zikomeye nk’iya Battle of Verdun, Battle of the Somme, na Battle of Passchendaele ntizashoboye guhindura uko ibintu byari bihagaze. Mu 1917, United States yinjiye mu ruhande rw’Allies, mu gihe mu Burusiya habaye October Revolution, bituma bwivana mu ntambara.

Mu 1918, u Budage bwagerageje igitero gikomeye ariko burananirwa. Igitero cya Allies cyiswe Hundred Days Offensive cyatumye ingabo z’u Budage zisenyuka. Ibihugu byari bifatanyije na bwo byatangiye kwemera guhagarika intambara, maze umwami Wilhelm II ava ku butegetsi ku wa 9 Ugushyingo 1918. Intambara yarangiye ku wa 11 Ugushyingo 1918.

Nyuma y’intambara, habaye Paris Peace Conference, hashyirwaho amasezerano arimo Treaty of Versailles, yasabye u Budage gutanga indishyi nyinshi no gutakaza ubutaka.

Gusenyuka kw’ubwami nka Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, n’ubundi bwatumye havuka ibihugu bishya nka Poland, Finland, Baltic states, Czechoslovakia, na Yugoslavia.

Hashyizweho kandi League of Nations igamije kubungabunga amahoro ku isi, ariko yananiwe gukumira ibibazo byo mu gihe cyakurikiyeho (interwar period), bikaza kuvamo World War II mu 1939.Mbere y’uko habaho World War II, ibyabaye hagati ya 1914 na 1918 byitwaga kenshi “Intambara Ikomeye” (Great War) cyangwa se “Intambara y’Isi” (World War) gusa.

Mu kwezi kwa Kanama 1914, ikinyamakuru The Independent cyanditse kuri iyo ntambara kigira kiti: “Iyi ni Intambara Ikomeye. Yiyita ubwayo izina ryayo.”

Mu myaka yakurikiye irangira ryayo, abantu benshi bizeye ko izaba “intambara isoza izindi zose”, kubera ubukana bwayo n’umubare munini w’abantu yahitanye.

Ijambo “Intambara ya Mbere y’Isi” (First World War) ryatangiye gukoreshwa bwa mbere mu kwezi kwa Nzeri 1914, ubwo umuhanga w’Umudage mu binyabuzima n’umuhanga mu bitekerezo Ernst Haeckel yandikaga ko iyo ntambara yari irimo iba mu Burayi ishobora kuzaba “intambara ya mbere y’isi mu buryo bwuzuye.”Mu kinyejana cya 19 hafi yose, ibihugu bikomeye byo mu Burayi byageragezaga kugumana uburinganire bw’imbaraga (balance of power), bwari buzwi nka Concert of Europe.

Nyuma ya 1848, ubu buringanire bwatangiye guhungabana kubera impamvu zitandukanye:

United Kingdom yatangiye kwigunga (splendid isolation)

Kugabanuka kw’imbaraga z’Ottoman Empire

Iyaguka ry’ubukoloni (New Imperialism)

N’izamuka rya Prussia iyobowe na Otto von Bismarck

Intsinzi ya Prussia mu ntambara ya Franco-Prussian War yatumye Bismarck ashyira hamwe u Budage, hashyirwaho German Empire. Nyuma ya 1871, u Bufaransa bwatangiye politiki yo kwihorera (revanchism) no kwagura ubukoloni bwabwo.

Mu 1873, Bismarck yashyizeho ihuriro ryiswe League of the Three Emperors, ryarimo:

Austria-Hungary

Russian Empire

n’u Budage

Ariko iri huriro ryarasenyutse nyuma y’intambara ya Russo-Turkish War, bitewe n’uko Austria-Hungary yatinyaga ko Russia yakongera imbaraga mu karere ka Balkans.

Nyuma yaho, u Budage na Austria-Hungary byashyizeho amasezerano y’ubufatanye yitwa Dual Alliance, yaje kuvamo Triple Alliance ubwo Italy yinjiragamo mu 1882.

Intego ya Bismarck muri aya masezerano yari ukwigizayo u Bufaransa, ashyira imbere ko ibihugu byari bikomeye byakemura ibibazo byabyo hagati yabyo. Mu 1887, yashyizeho amasezerano y’ibanga yiswe Reinsurance Treaty hagati y’u Budage na Russia, agamije ko ibyo bihugu byakomeza kutabogama igihe kimwe cyaba gitewe n’u Bufaransa cyangwa Austria-Hungary.

Ibi byose byashyizeho urufatiro rw’ubushyamirane bwaje kuvamo Intambara ya Mbere y’Isi.Mu mwaka wa 1910, ubukungu n’inganda z’u Budage byakomeje kwiyongera cyane nyuma y’ishyirwaho rya German Empire mu 1871. Bishingiye ku bushyigikirwe bwa Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz yashakaga gukoresha ubu bukungu kugira ngo yubake ingabo z’amato z’ubwami (Imperial German Navy) zishobora guhangana n’iza United Kingdom, cyane cyane Royal Navy.

Iyi politiki yashingiye ku bitekerezo bya umuhanga wo muri Amerika mu by’amato Alfred Thayer Mahan, wavugaga ko kugira amato akomeye yo mu nyanja (blue-water navy) ari ingenzi mu kuba igihugu cyagira imbaraga ku isi. Tirpitz yasobanuye ibitekerezo bye mu Budage, ndetse Wilhelm II ategeka ko bigirwa isomo ku bayobozi be n’abasirikare bakuru.

Ariko nyuma y’uko Bismarck avuye ku butegetsi mu 1890, politiki yarahindutse bituma hatangira isiganwa ry’intwaro z’amato hagati y’u Budage n’u Bwongereza, rizwi nka Anglo-German naval arms race.

Nubwo u Budage bwashoye amafaranga menshi, ishyirwa ku isoko ry’intwaro nshya y’Ubwongereza ryiswe HMS Dreadnought mu 1906 ryatumye amato yose yari asanzwe aba ashaje, biha Ubwongereza icyizere cy’ubuhangange mu nyanja.

Mu 1911, Minisitiri w’Intebe Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg yemeye ko u Budage budashobora guhangana n’Ubwongereza mu nyanja, bituma habaho ihinduka ry’ingengo y’imari (Rüstungswende), aho amafaranga y’intwaro z’amato yoherejwe mu gisirikare cy’ubutaka.

Ibi byatewe n’uko u Budage bwahangayikishijwe n’uko Russian Empire bwari bwongeye kwiyubaka nyuma y’intsinzi yabwo mu ntambara ya Russo-Japanese War n’imvururu za 1905 Russian Revolution.

Hagati aho, u Budage bwateje imbere cyane inzira za gari ya moshi n’ibindi bikorwa remezo mu turere two mu burengerazuba, kugira ngo byihutishe kwimura ingabo.

Kuva u Budage n’Austria-Hungary byari bishingiye ku kwimura ingabo vuba kugira ngo bihangane n’ubwinshi bw’Ingabo za Russia, ibi byari ingenzi kurusha guhangana n’Ubwongereza mu nyanja.

Mu 1913, u Budage bwongereye ingabo zabwo n’abasirikare 170,000, bituma u Bufaransa bwongera igihe cy’akazi ka gisirikare kiva ku myaka ibiri kigera kuri itatu, n’ibindi bihugu byo muri Balkans, Italy, Ottoman Empire, na Austria-Hungary nabyo byongera ingabo zabyo.

Mu gihe hagati ya 1908 na 1913, amafaranga yashyirwaga mu gisirikare n’ibihugu bikomeye by’i Burayi yazamutse ku kigero kirenga 50% mu buryo nyabwo (real terms), bikomeza kongera ubushyamirane bwaje kuvamo Intambara ya Mbere y’Isi.Imyaka ya mbere ya 1914 yaranzwe n’uruhererekane rw’ibibazo n’intambara mu karere ka Balkans, aho ibihugu bikomeye byashakaga kungukira ku kugabanuka kw’imbaraga z’Ottoman Empire.

Mu by’ukuri, Russian Empire ryari rifite igitekerezo cya Pan-Slavism n’Itorero rya Orthodox, ryibwiraga ko ari umurinzi wa Serbia n’ibindi bihugu by’Abasilave. Ariko Russia nayo yifuzaga ko inzira z’ingenzi z’amazi nka Bosporus ziguma mu maboko ya Ottoman Empire idafite imbaraga nyinshi, aho kuba mu maboko y’igihugu gikomeye cy’Abasilave nka Bulgaria.

Ibi byatumye politiki ya Russia igira amakimbirane imbere yayo, kuko yari ifite inyungu zitandukanye mu karere ka Anatolia n’iya Balkans, bikongera umutekano muke muri ako karere.

Ku ruhande rwa Austria-Hungary, abategetsi babonaga Balkans nk’aho ari ingenzi cyane kugira ngo ubwami bwabo bukomeze kubaho, kandi ko kwaguka kwa Serbia ari ikibazo gikomeye.

Mu 1908–1909 habaye ikibazo cyiswe Bosnian Crisis, ubwo Austria yigaruriraga Bosnia and Herzegovina, igihugu cyahoze ari icya Ottoman Empire ariko cyari kimaze igihe kirekire kiyobowe n’u Burusiya/Austria. Ibi byarwanyijwe n’ibindi bihugu by’i Burayi ariko ntibyakemuka neza.

Nyuma yaho, intambara ya Italo-Turkish War yagaragaje intege nke za Ottoman Empire, bituma hashyirwaho ihuriro ry’ibihugu ryiswe Balkan League, ririmo Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro na Greece.

Iri huriro ryatsinze cyane mu First Balkan War, ryigarurira ibice byinshi bya Balkans byari ibya Ottoman Empire.

Ibi byatumye Austria itangira kwitegura intambara (mobilisation), cyane cyane igihe Serbia yageragezaga kubona icyambu ku Nyanja ya Adriatic, bituma umutekano muke wiyongera. Russia ariko ntiyahise yinjira mu ntambara, kuko itari yiteguye.

Mu 1913, ibihugu bikomeye byashyizeho amasezerano ya Treaty of London, hagamijwe kugabanya amakimbirane no gushyiraho igihugu cya Albania cyigenga, ndetse no kugabanya ibice byahawe ibihugu byatsinze.

Ariko bidatinze, ibihugu byatsinze ntibyanyuzwe, bituma habaho Second Balkan War, aho Bulgaria yateye Serbia na Greece ariko iza gutsindwa. Serbia na Greece byungutse ibice bya Macedonia, naho Romania yigarurira Southern Dobruja.

Ibi byose byasize akarere ka Balkans mu mwiryane, kuko ibihugu byose byumvaga byariganywe cyangwa bitabonye ibyakagombye kuba ibyabyo. Austria-Hungary n’ibindi bihugu na byo byumvaga ko ibindi bihugu bitabitaho.

Uru ruvange rw’uburakari, ubwenegihugu bukabije (nationalism), n’umutekano muke, ni byo byatumye Balkans yitwa “powder keg of Europe” — bisobanura agace gashobora guturika intambara igihe icyo ari cyo cyose.Ku wa 25 Nyakanga (July), Serbia yemeye hafi ya byose mu byasabwe, ariko yanga ingingo yahaga Abanya-Austria uburenganzira bwo guhagarika no guhana “abashaka gusenya igihugu” imbere muri Serbia, ndetse no kugira uruhare mu iperereza no mu manza z’abakekwaho kugira uruhare mu iyicwa rya Archduke.

Austria yabifashe nk’aho Serbia yanze ibyo isabwa, ihita ihagarika umubano wa dipolomasi, maze ku munsi wakurikiyeho itegeka igice cy’ingabo gutangira kwitegura intambara. Ku wa 28 Nyakanga, Austria-Hungary yatangaje intambara kuri Serbia, itangira no kurasa ku murwa mukuru Belgrade.

Ku wa 30 Nyakanga, Russian Empire yatangaje ko igiye gutegura ingabo zose mu rwego rwo gushyigikira Serbia.

Mu Budage, Minisitiri w’Intebe Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg yatinze gutangira imyiteguro y’intambara kugeza ku wa 31 Nyakanga, kugira ngo ashyigikire ishyaka rya politiki rya SPD agaragaza ko Russia ari yo itangije intambara.

Nyuma yaho, u Budage bwahaye Russia amasaha 12 yo guhagarika imyiteguro y’intambara. France na yo yasabwe kutivanga, ariko irabyanga maze itangira imyiteguro y’intambara (mobilisation), nubwo itatangaje intambara ako kanya.

U Budage bwari bufite umugambi uzwi nka Schlieffen Plan, wari ugamije gutsinda u Bufaransa vuba, hanyuma bukerekeza ku Burusiya. Kubera ko ibyo byasabaga kwihutisha ingabo, bwahise butangira imyiteguro.

Ku wa 1 Kanama, igihe ultimatum u Budage bwahaye Russia yarangiye, ibihugu byombi byinjiye mu ntambara.

Mu Bwongereza, guverinoma yaganiriye ku nshingano zayo zishingiye ku masezerano ya Treaty of London ajyanye no kurinda ubudahangarwa bwa Belgium. Nubwo hari impaka, guverinoma n’ingabo z’Ubwongereza zari zimaze kwitegura gufasha u Bufaransa, kandi abaturage benshi bashyigikiye kwinjira mu ntambara.

Ku wa 31 Nyakanga, Ubwongereza bwabwiye u Budage n’u Bufaransa kubahiriza ubusugire bwa Belgium, ariko u Budage ntibwasubiza.

Ku wa 2 Kanama, u Budage bwigaruriye Luxembourg, hanyuma habaho imirwano n’ingabo z’u Bufaransa. Ku wa 3 Kanama, u Budage bwatangaje intambara ku Bufaransa, busaba kunyura muri Belgium, ariko irabyanga.

Ku wa 4 Kanama mu gitondo, u Budage bateye Belgium, maze Umwami Albert I of Belgium asaba ubufasha hashingiwe ku masezerano ya London.

Ubwongereza bwahaye u Budage ultimatum yo kuva muri Belgium, ariko igihe cyayo kirangira nta gisubizo. Ku wa 4 Kanama, u Bwongereza n’u Budage byinjiye mu ntambara, bitangira World War I ku mugaragaro.Imiterere y’intambara y’igisirikare cy’u Budage yari igeze aho idafite icyizere cyo gutsinda.

Ku wa 24 Ukwakira, ingabo z’u Butaliyani zatangiye igitero gikomeye zasubizaga ibice byari byarafashwe nyuma y’Intambara ya Battle of Caporetto. Ibi byaje gusozwa n’Intambara ya Battle of Vittorio Veneto, yatumye ingabo z’Austria-Hungary zisenyuka burundu nk’ingabo zishobora kurwana.

Iyi ntambara yanateye gusenyuka kw’Ubwami bwa Austria-Hungary. Mu cyumweru cya nyuma cya Ukwakira 1918, ibihugu byiyobowe na bwo byatangiye gutangaza ubwigenge: i Budapest, Prague, na Zagreb.

Ku wa 29 Ukwakira, abayobozi b’ubwami basabye u Butaliyani guhagarika intambara (armistice), ariko ingabo z’u Butaliyani zakomeje gutera zigera i Trento, Udine, na Trieste.

Ku wa 3 Ugushyingo, Austria-Hungary yohereje ibendera ry’amahoro (white flag) maze yemera amasezerano yo guhagarika intambara yiswe Armistice of Villa Giusti, yateguwe n’inzego zishyigikiye Allies i Paris. Nyuma y’aho, Austria na Hungary byasinye amasezerano atandukanye nyuma y’isenyuka ry’ubwami bwa Habsburg dynasty.

Mu minsi yakurikiyeho, ingabo z’u Butaliyani zinjiye i Innsbruck no mu karere kose ka Tyrol, zifite abasirikare barenga 20,000.

Ku wa 30 Ukwakira, Ottoman Empire nayo yemeye gutsindwa, isinya amasezerano yo guhagarika intambara yiswe Armistice of Mudros.

Kwishyira hasi kwa Guverinoma y’u Budage

Nubwo intambara yasenyutse ku mpande zose, u Budage na bwo bwari buri mu marembera y’intsinzi. Guverinoma nshya iyobowe na Prince Maximilian of Baden yatangiye imishyikirano na Perezida Wilson w’Amerika, ishaka amahoro afatika.

Wilson yasabaga ko u Budage buhinduka ubwami bugendera ku itegeko nshinga kandi igisirikare kikagenzurwa na politiki.

Hagati aho, mu Budage hatangiye German Revolution of 1918–1919. Ingabo z’amato zanze kwitabira urugamba bumvaga ko rumaze gutsindwa, bituma habaho imyivumbagatanyo y’abasirikare (sailors’ revolt) mu byambu bya Wilhelmshaven na Kiel.

Iyi myivumbagatanyo yakwirakwiriye mu gihugu cyose, bituma hatangazwa Repubulika ku wa 9 Ugushyingo 1918, ndetse Umwami Wilhelm II ava ku butegetsi (abdication).

Nyuma y’ibi byose, u Budage bwemeye gutsindwa ku mugaragaro, intambara irangira binyuze mu masezerano y’agahenge yo ku wa 11 Ugushyingo 1918, arangije World War I.  Yanditswe Nzayisenga Adrien 

Intasi Eli Cohen yari Muntu Ki?

Eli Cohen (yavutse mu 1924 i Alexandria muri Egypt apfa ku wa 18 Gicurasi 1965 i Damascus muri Syria) yari maneko wa Isiraheli wavukiye mu Misiri. Yabashije kwinjira mu nzego zo hejuru z’igisirikare n’ubutegetsi bwa Siriya, yiyitirira ko ari umucuruzi ukomoka muri icyo gihugu.

Hagati ya 1961 na 1965, Cohen yohererezaga Leta ya Isiraheli amakuru y’ibanga ya Siriya. Ibi bikorwa bye by’ubumaneko bifatwa nk’imwe mu migambi y’ubutasi y’ubuhanga n’umusaruro ukomeye cyane yabayeho mu mateka ya Isiraheli.Eli Cohen yakuriye mu mujyi wa Alexandria muri Egypt, ari umwana w’ababyeyi b’Abayahudi bakomoka muri Siriya. Kuba yaravugaga neza Icyarabu, Icyongereza n’Igifaransa byatumye aba umuntu wifuzwa cyane n’inzego z’ubutasi za Isiraheli.

Mu 1955, yagiye muri Israel gukorerayo amahugurwa magufi y’ubutasi, maze mu mwaka wakurikiyeho asubira mu Misiri. Nyuma ya Suez Crisis, Cohen yirukanwe mu Misiri hamwe n’abandi Bayahudi bashyigikiraga ingengabitekerezo ya Zionism, ahita yimukira muri Isiraheli mu 1957. Yahakoze akazi ko guhindura indimi (translator) n’icungamutungo (accountant), mbere y’uko yongera gushakwa n’inzego z’ubutasi za Isiraheli mu 1960.

Amaze kongera guhugurwa, mu 1961 Cohen yoherejwe i Buenos Aires, aho yiyitiriye kuba umucuruzi w’Umunyasiriya uba mu mahanga. Yifashishije izina ry’ikirenga rya “Kamal Amin Thaabet”, Cohen yubatse umubano n’Abanyasiriya bari batuye muri Argentina, kandi vuba cyane yizerwa n’abayobozi bakuru bakoreraga ambasade ya Siriya muri icyo gihugu.

Muri abo harimo n’ushinzwe igisirikare muri ambasade, Amin al-Hafez, waje nyuma kuba Perezida wa Syria. Cohen yakundaga kugaragaza ko ashaka “gusubira” muri Siriya, maze mu 1962 yimukiye i Damascus. Ahageze abo bari baziranye bamufashije kugera mu nzego zo hejuru z’ubutegetsi bwa Siriya.

Bidatinze, yatangiye kohereza amakuru y’ibanga ajyanye n’imigambi y’igisirikare cya Siriya ayageza kuri Isiraheli.Cohen yakoze ibikorwa by’ubutasi bifite akamaro kanini cyane kurushaho ubwo ubutegetsi bwa Baʿth (Baath Party) bwari bufite abayobozi b’igisirikare (junta), harimo bamwe mu nshuti ze zo muri Argentine, bwafataga ubutegetsi muri Siriya mu 1963. Umuyobozi w’iyo coup, Amin al-Hafez, yakomeje kumugirira icyizere, ndetse bivugwa ko yatekerezaga kumugira umwungirije muri Minisiteri y’Ingabo. Cohen yahabwaga amakuru y’ibanga ya gisirikare kandi yajyaga ajyanwa gusura ibirindiro bya gisirikare bya Siriya mu Golan Heights.

Amakuru y’ingenzi (Quick Facts):

Amazina ye yose: Eliahu ben Shaoul Cohen

Izina yakoresheje mu butasi: Kamal Amin Thaabet

Yavutse: 1924, i Alexandria, muri Egypt

Mu kwezi kwa Mutarama 1965, abashinzwe iperereza rya Siriya babashije kumenya aho signal ye ya radio ituruka, bamufatira mu cyuho ari kohereza ubutumwa. Yabajijwe ibibazo, akatirwa n’urukiko rwa gisirikare, maze amanikwa mu ruhame muri Gicurasi 1965. Yanditswe na Nzayisenga Adrien 

Menya amwe mu mateka ya Madame Agathe Uwiringiyimana

 Agathe Uwilingiyimana yavutse ku wa 23 Gicurasi 1953 mu mudugudu wa Nyaruhengeri, mu cyahoze ari Butare Province mu majyepfo y’u Rwanda, ku ntera ya kilometero 140 uvuye mu murwa mukuru Kigali. Yimukanye n’ababyeyi be bari abahinzi bajya muri Belgian Congo gushaka akazi, ariko bagaruka i Butare mu 1957. 

Nyuma yo gutsinda neza ibizamini bya Leta, yize mu ishuri ryisumbuye rya Notre Dame des Cîteaux, aho yabonye impamyabumenyi imwemerera kwigisha amasomo y’inyigisho rusange (humanities) mu 1973. Yakomeje amasomo ye muri kaminuza yiga imibare na chimie, nyuma aba umwarimu i Butare mu 1976. Mu 1983, yigishaga chimie muri National University of Rwanda. Yabonye impamyabumenyi ya B.Sc. mu 1985, akomeza kwigisha chimie mu mashuri yo muri Butare mu gihe cy’imyaka ine. Yagiye anengwa n’abakurikizaga imigenzo ya kera kubera gushishikariza abakobwa kwiga imibare n’amasomo ya siyansi.

Uwilingiyimana yashakanye n’uwo biganye mu mashuri yisumbuye witwaga Ignace Barahira mu 1976; yakomeje gukoresha izina rye bwite nk’uko bisanzwe bikorwa ku bagore b’Abanyarwanda. Yabyaye umwana wa mbere mu mwaka wakurikiyeho, aza kugira abana batanu.Mu 1986, Agathe Uwilingiyimana yashinze ishyirahamwe ryo kwizigamira no kugurizanya (cooperative) hagati y’abakozi b’ishuri rikuru rya Butare. Uruhare rwe rukomeye muri iri shyirahamwe ryo kwiteza imbere rwatumye abategetsi b'iKigali bamumenya, kuko bashakaga gushyiraho abayobozi bakomoka mu majyepfo y’igihugu batari bishimiye ubuyobozi bwariho. Mu 1989, yagizwe umuyobozi muri Minisiteri y’Ubucuruzi.

Mu 1992, yinjiye mu ishyaka ritavuga rumwe n’ubutegetsi rya Republican Democratic Movement (MDR), maze muri Mata uwo mwaka agirwa Minisitiri w’Uburezi na Dismas Nsengiyaremye, wari Minisitiri w’Intebe wa mbere uturuka mu mashyaka atavuga rumwe n’ubutegetsi, mu rwego rwo kugabana ubutegetsi bwumvikanyweho hagati ya Perezida Juvénal Habyarimana n’andi mashyaka atanu  ataravuga rumwe n’ubutegetsi.

Akimara kuba Minisitiri w’Uburezi, Uwilingiyimana yakuyeho gahunda y’ivangura rishingiye ku moko mu mashuri (quota system), ashyiraho uburyo bwo kwakira abanyeshuri no gutanga buruse hashingiwe ku bushobozi (merit). 

Ku wa 17 Nyakanga 1993, Uwilingiyimana yasimbuye Nsengiyaremye ku mwanya wa Minisitiri w’Intebe w’u Rwanda, nyuma y’inama yahuje Perezida Habyarimana n’ayo mashyaka atanu. Ishyaka MDR ryari ryaracitsemo ibice bibiri.

Mu nama yabereye i Kigali, Perezida Habyarimana yigeze kumubwira amusebya ati: “Wowe mugore!” Undi amusubiza ati: “Ntumbwire utyo. Sindi umugore wawe!”